This is a working overview of ACTH(4-10), written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-07-14. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research models | Rodent studies | Largest share of published data |
| Reported markers | BDNF and NGF expression | Measured mainly in animal tissue |
| Common administration | Intranasal | Matches the registered formulation |
| Blood residence time | Minutes | Rapid enzymatic degradation |
| Evidence quality | Small trials, limited replication | Noted repeatedly in reviews |
Identity and purity are established with standard peptide methods. Reversed-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection near 214 nm resolves the parent peak from deletion and truncation byproducts, and reports typically quote a main-peak percentage. Mass spectrometry by electrospray or MALDI-TOF confirms the expected molecular mass, while amino acid analysis or peptide mapping can verify composition when the sequence itself is in question. A certificate of analysis that pairs a chromatogram with a mass spectrum is more informative than a purity figure alone. Counter-ion content and residual solvents are separate specifications and are frequently omitted.
Semax is normally supplied as a lyophilized powder, and that form is the most stable. Suppliers commonly recommend storage at -20 °C in a desiccated container protected from light, with short-term handling at room temperature limited to weighing and transfer. Powder that has absorbed moisture degrades faster, so vials should be warmed to ambient temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the contents. Hygroscopic behavior is typical of short hydrophilic peptides, and humidity control matters more than temperature alone for long-term retention.
Once dissolved, the peptide is considerably less stable than the solid. Aqueous solutions are usually prepared at neutral to slightly acidic pH, filtered, and divided into single-use aliquots before freezing. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are a common cause of avoidable loss and are best prevented by never refreezing a thawed aliquot. Adsorption to plastic and glass surfaces can lower the measured concentration of dilute solutions, particularly below roughly 0.1 mg/mL. Buffer choice, salt content, and container material all influence how much peptide remains detectable after storage.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
多数实验室与市售的 Semax 以冻干粉形式提供。冻干粉通常建议保存在 -20 °C 或更低温度下，同时避免光照与反复升温。短期运输有时采用冷藏条件，但长期保存仍以冷冻为主。分包操作应尽量减少开盖次数，以降低吸湿和微生物污染的风险。开封后若未一次用完，建议在干燥环境中密封并尽快放回低温储存。
溶液状态的稳定性明显低于冻干粉。肽类在水溶液中可能经历水解、氧化与聚集，其中甲硫氨酸和天冬酰胺等残基常是敏感位点。Semax 含有甲硫氨酸，因此氧化风险相对突出。工作液一般主张现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用尽。缓冲液种类、pH 和离子强度都会影响降解速率，而关于最佳条件的公开数据并不统一。
== Pathogenesis == Type 1 diabetes is a result of the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, although what triggers that destruction remains unclear. People with type 1 diabetes tend to have more CD8+ T-cells and B-cells that specifically target islet antigens than those without type 1 diabetes, suggesting a role for the adaptive immune system in beta cell destruction. Type 1 diabetics also tend to have reduced regulatory T cell function, which may exacerbate autoimmunity. Destruction of beta cells results in inflammation of the islet of Langerhans, called insulitis. These inflamed islets tend to contain CD8+ T-cells and – to a lesser extent – CD4+ T cells. Abnormalities in the pancreas or the beta cells themselves may also contribute to beta-cell destruction. The pancreases of people with type 1 diabetes tend to be smaller, lighter, and have abnormal blood vessels, nerve innervations, and extracellular matrix organization. In addition, beta cells from people with type 1 diabetes sometimes overexpress HLA class I molecules (responsible for signaling to the immune system) and have increased endoplasmic reticulum stress and issues with synthesizing and folding new proteins, any of which could contribute to their demise. The mechanism by which the beta cells actually die likely involves both necroptosis and apoptosis, induced or exacerbated by CD8+ T-cells and macrophages. Necroptosis can be triggered by activated T cells – which secrete toxic granzymes and perforin – or indirectly as a result of reduced blood flow or the generation of reactive oxygen species.
In addition to its role as a natural hormone, estradiol is used as a medication, for instance in menopausal hormone therapy, and feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women and some genderqueer individuals; for information on estradiol as a medication, see the estradiol (medication) article.
In 2009, the FDA issued a health advisory warning that the prescription of bupropion for smoking cessation has been associated with reports of unusual behavior changes, agitation, and hostility. Some people, according to the advisory, have become depressed or have had their depression worsen, have had thoughts about suicide or dying, or have attempted suicide. This advisory was based on a review of anti-smoking products that identified 75 reports of "suicidal adverse events" for bupropion over ten years. Based on the results of follow-up trials this warning was removed in 2016. In 2012, the US Justice Department announced that GlaxoSmithKline had agreed to plead guilty and pay a $3 billion fine, in part for promoting the unapproved use of Wellbutrin for weight loss and sexual dysfunction. In 2017, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended suspending a number of nationally approved medicines due to misrepresentation of bioequivalence study data by Micro Therapeutic Research Labs in India. The products recommended for suspension included several 300 mg modified-release bupropion tablets. Following EMA's call for an industry-wide review of medicines for the possible presence of nitrosamines, GlaxoSmithKline paused batch release and distribution of bupropion 150 mg tablets in November 2022. In July 2023, EMA raised the acceptable daily intake of nitrosamine impurities, leading GlaxoSmithKline to announce that distribution of bupropion 150 mg tablets would resume "across the EU and Europe" by the end of 2023.
Respiratory infections such as pneumonia, influenza and COVID-19, are more common and severe among individuals with poorly controlled diabetes. Hyperglycemia alters lung dendritic cell function, leading to an increase in susceptibility to respiratory agents. Several studies also show diabetes associated with a worse disease course and slower recovery from respiratory infections. Increased risk of wound infections Restrictive lung disease is known to be associated with diabetes. Lung restriction in diabetes could result from chronic low-grade tissue inflammation, microangiopathy, and/or accumulation of advanced glycation end products. In fact the presence restrictive lung defect in association with diabetes has been shown even in presence of obstructive lung diseases like asthma and COPD in diabetic patients. Lipohypertrophy may be caused by insulin therapy. Repeated insulin injections at the same site, or near to, causes an accumulation of extra subcutaneous fat and may present as a large lump under the skin. It may be unsightly, mildly painful, and may change the timing or completeness of insulin action. Depression was associated with diabetes in a 2010 longitudinal study of 4,263 individuals with type 2 diabetes, followed from 2005 to 2007. They were found to have a statistically significant association with depression and a high risk of micro and macro-vascular events.
== External links == International Chemical Safety Card 0950. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. R., Frances (2006). "Is there poison in auto air bags?". The Straight Dope. Archived from the original on 2020-07-31. Retrieved 2022-10-25.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The requirement to remove surfactants, specifically SDS as used in Gel Elution Liquid-based Fractionation Entrapment Electrophoresis fractionation, prior to LC means that some proteoforms will be lost due to a lack of solubility after surfactant removal.
Court docket: United States v. Carvajal-Barrios (S.D.N.Y.), 1:11-cr-00205; second superseding indictment against Maduro and others "Crisis in Venezuela". Frontline. Season 44. Episode 9. 10 February 2026. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 25 February 2026.
=== Novel Vaccine Adjuvant === A novel vaccine adjuvant that's purpose is to evoke both humoral and cellular immune responses was reported. This vaccine adjuvant was found from a supramolecular hydrogel of a self-assembling D-tetra-peptide. Prior pioneering work has found that self-assembling peptides can serve as self-adjuvated vaccines through the covalent conjugation of peptide or protein antigens, but that cannot elicit strong CD8^+ T-cell responses. However, in a recent study it has been found that the self-assembling L-peptide derivative (Nap-GFFY-NMe, naphthylacetic acid modified tetra-peptide of GFFY with C-terminal methyl amide group) that was formed fromm the phosphatase, could co-assemble with HIV DNA molecules and raise both humoral and cellular immune responses against HIV. It has been reported that the large-scale synthesis of the phosphorylated precursor (Nap-GFFpY-NMe or Nap-GFFpY-OMe (naphthylacetic acid modified phosphorylated tetra-peptide of GFFpY with C-terminal methyl ester group)) is extremely difficult. It has also been reported that the need of enzyme triggering could possibly cause side effects including; reproducibility problems and composition variation. If they are able to develop a peptide hydrogel as a vaccine adjuvant that contains a well-defined molecular structure and a very simple formulation mode, it would be very promising.
S. divinorum (0.89 mg/g to 3.70 mg/g). S. recognita (212.9 μg/g). S. cryptantha (51.5 μg/g). S. glutinosa (38.9 μg/g). Salvinorin B has been detected in S. potentillifolia and S. adenocaulon, however these species do not contain a measureable amount of salvinorin A.
Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan, Procytox), Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) and Vincristine (Oncovin) Paclitaxel (Taxol) Irinotecan (Camptosar) Guidelines recommended as of 2018 that patients who relapse > 6 months from initial therapy should be retreated with the original chemotherapy regimen. For patients who relapse in < 6 months, single-agent chemotherapy either topotecan second-line therapy, or paclitaxel can be used.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Methylation of arsenic == Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolised (detoxified) through a process of methylation. The methylation occurs through alternating reductive and oxidative methylation reactions, that is, reduction of pentavalent to trivalent arsenic followed by addition of a methyl group (CH3).
==== Animal symbioses ==== Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition. The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.
=== Lipton Fusions === Lipton Fusions are a brand of lemonade-iced tea canned beverages. In April 28, 2025, Lipton Teas and Infusions created what's known as Lipton Fusions. They come in the following flavors:
Prediabetes is a component of metabolic syndrome and is characterized by elevated blood sugar levels that fall below the threshold to diagnose diabetes mellitus. It usually does not cause symptoms, but people with prediabetes often have obesity (especially abdominal or visceral obesity), dyslipidemia with high triglycerides and/or low HDL cholesterol, and hypertension. It is also associated with increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Prediabetes is more accurately considered an early stage of diabetes, as health complications associated with type 2 diabetes often occur before the diagnosis of diabetes. Prediabetes can be diagnosed by measuring hemoglobin A1c, fasting glucose, or glucose tolerance test. Many people may be diagnosed through routine screening tests. The primary treatment approach includes lifestyle changes such as exercise and dietary adjustments. Some medications can be used to reduce the risks associated with prediabetes. There is a high rate of progression to type 2 diabetes but this does not develop for everyone with prediabetes. Prediabetes can be a reversible condition with lifestyle changes. For many people, prediabetes and diabetes are diagnosed through a routine screening at a check-up. The earlier prediabetes is diagnosed, the more likely an intervention will be successful.
=== Alloys === A widely used zinc alloy is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass. Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper, and has superior corrosion resistance. These properties make it useful in communication equipment, hardware, musical instruments, and water valves.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.
The compound is registered as a medicine in Russia, so clinical work has concentrated there. Trials elsewhere are few and generally small. This geographic concentration is a recognized limitation in evidence reviews.
Some fraction may reach the central nervous system through olfactory pathways, and this is often cited as the rationale for the nasal route. The size of that fraction in humans is not well quantified. Blood concentrations after nasal dosing are low, which complicates measurement.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.