If you have been reading about ACTH(4–10) and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-06-14. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Seven-residue peptide |
| Molecular mass | 813.9 Da | Monoisotopic value |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized form |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also soluble in saline and polar solvents |
| Storage (dry) | -20 °C or lower | Desiccated, protected from light |
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Cinema Blend called it one of the most underappreciated games of the decade. In 2011, Official Xbox Magazine called it one of the ten PC franchises it wanted on the Xbox 360 console. In 2013, PC Gamer named it one of the 100 Best Horror Games on PC, and PCGamesN called it the seventh-best PC role-playing game. In 2014, Bloodlines was 90th in Empire's readers' poll of the 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time, and Maximum PC chose it as one of the games they wanted to be remastered for contemporary game systems. In 2015, Rock, Paper, Shotgun listed Bloodlines as the PC's 19th Best RPG and 15th Best Horror Game. In 2017, the game was listed 42nd on IGN's list of the Top 100 RPGs of all Time, Den of Geek named it one of the 20 Video Games that Deserve Remakes, and PC Gamer named it one of the best role-playing games of all time. In 2018, USGamer named it the 22nd best RPG of All Time, summarising that "for all of its bugs and questionable gameplay choices... the raw strength of its design still has the power to grab fans." PC Gamer highlighted the haunted "Ocean House Hotel" as a "high point of unexpected horror", comparing it to the Shalebridge Cradle level from Thief: Deadly Shadows (2004) and Ravenholm from Half-Life 2 (2004). In 2020, Rock, Paper, Shotgun named it the 44th-best RPG for PC.
== Interactions == Interactions are important for SGLT2 inhibitors because most people with type 2 diabetes are taking many other medications. Gliflozins appear to increase the diuretic effect of thiazides, loop diuretics and related diuretics and may increase the risk of dehydration and hypotension. It is important to adjust the dose of antidiabetics if the treatment is combination therapy to avoid hypoglycemia. For example, interactions with sulfonylureas have led to severe hypoglycemia presumably due to cytochrome P450.
an L-amino acid + H2O + O2 ⇌ a 2-oxo acid + NH3 + H2O2 The enzyme was first described in 1944 by A. Zeller and A. Maritz. Not only are LAAOs quite variable in terms of molecular mass, they also vary widely regarding stability. In a similar vein, this enzyme performs in a myriad of biological activities including apoptosis-induction, edema-induction, hemorrhaging, and inhibition or induction of platelet aggregation. As suggested by the name of the family, LAAOs are flavoenzymes which function to catalyze the stereospecific oxidative deamination of an L-amino acid. The three substrates of the enzymatic reaction are an L-amino acid, water, and oxygen. The products are the corresponding α-keto acid (2-oxo acid), ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide. One example of the enzyme in action occurs with the conversion L-alanine into pyruvic acid (2-oxopropanoic acid):
=== STRACO === An elite force named Specially Trained Armed Company or STRACO has been created to combat insurgency & terrorism, posted in West Zone to fight Maoist guerrillas. WBP is raising another new "Counter Insurgency" force on the line of Gray Hound Special Force of Andhra Pradesh Police.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Tea may also be decaffeinated, usually by using processes analogous to the direct method or the CO2 process, as described above. Oxidizing tea leaves to create black tea or oolong tea leaves from green leaves does not affect the amount of caffeine in the tea, though tea-plant subspecies (i.e. Camellia sinensis sinensis vs. Camellia sinensis assamica) may differ in natural caffeine content. Younger leaves and buds contain more caffeine by weight than older leaves and stems. Although the CO2 process is favorable because it is convenient, nonexplosive, and nontoxic, a comparison between regular and decaffeinated green teas using supercritical carbon dioxide showed that most volatile, nonpolar compounds (such as linalool and phenylacetaldehyde), green and floral flavor compounds (such as hexanal and (E)-2-hexenal), and some unknown compounds disappeared or decreased after decaffeination. In addition to CO2 process extraction, tea may be also decaffeinated using a hot water treatment. Optimal conditions are met by controlling water temperature, extraction time, and ratio of leaf to water. Temperatures of 100 °C or more, moderate extraction time of 3 minutes, and a 1:20 leaf to water weight per volume ratio removed 83% caffeine content and preserved 95% of total catechins. Catechins, a type of flavanol, contribute to the flavor of the tea and have been shown to increase the suppression of mutagens that may lead to cancer. Both coffee and tea have tannins, which are responsible for their astringent taste, but tea has around one third of the tannin content of coffee.
On the other hand, there will be no lasting muscle pain from lactate, and continuous aerobic activity is possible. Oxidation of odd-numbered saturated fatty acids may provide another mechanism, although very gradual, to up-regulate citric acid cycle during exercise. As the short-term regulation of ATP production becomes very weak after the exhaustion of glycogen, the medium-term regulation becomes enabled, but with a progressively weaker authority at higher purine nucleotide energy charge levels, which causes some differences in symptoms compared to McArdle's. In McArdle's, the highly active AMP deaminase, which additionally experiences amplification from the bloated AMP pool due to the lack of the moderating effect of myophosphorylase, is able to produce a readily observable "second wind" phenomenon almost exactly 7 minutes after a significant load increment. In AMPD deficiency, glycogen-less muscles will feel mostly the same by the time they become able to take another load increment. A load decrement may produce some sense of relief, though, if the pool of the citric acid cycle intermediates built up so far is sufficient to maintain full purine nucleotide energy charge at the lower load. It is unclear, what, if anything, does it take to unknowingly trigger rhabdomyolysis at this point, assuming the muscle cell is otherwise healthy.
The spokesperson warned that as long as Pakistan's attacks inside Afghanistan will continue, Taliban forces will keep on responding. A spokesperson for Taliban-led Afghan Ministry of Defense said that Taliban forces has the ability to block Pakistan's air operations inside Afghanistan. United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) announced that at least 42 civilians were killed and 104 others injured in Afghanistan in six days of fighting between the Taliban and Pakistan. The figure include casualties caused by indirect fire during cross-border fighting that struck residential areas in provinces of Paktia, Paktika, Nangarhar, Kunar and Khost, as well as airstrikes in Paktika and Nangarhar. UNAMA urged both countries to halt the clashes, to comply with international law, including international humanitarian law, and to protect civilians. Pakistani officials claimed that since the start of hostilities, 464 Afghan Taliban personnel had been killed and more than 665 others had been injured. They added that 188 checkposts had been destroyed, 31 posts captured, 192 tanks, armoured vehicles, and artillery pieces destroyed, and 56 locations across Afghanistan targeted in air strikes. Pakistani officials also said that they had carried out intelligence based operation Bannu district against Pakistani Taliban, injuring multiple militants. In Lakki Marwat district, a Pakistani Taliban commander was killed by Pakistani forces, while in Tank district, a Pakistani police constable was shot dead by militants.
The clitoral body (also known as the shaft of the clitoris) is a portion behind the glans that contains the union of the corpora cavernosa, a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue that hold most of the blood in the clitoris during erection. It is homologous to the penile shaft in the male. The two corpora forming the clitoral body are surrounded by thick fibro-elastic tunica albuginea, a sheath of connective tissue. These corpora are separated incompletely from each other in the midline by a fibrous pectiniform septum – a comblike band of connective tissue extending between the corpora cavernosa. The clitoral body is also connected to the pubic symphysis by the suspensory ligament. The body of the clitoris is a bent shape, which makes the clitoral angle or elbow. The angle divides the body into the ascending part (internal) near the pubic symphysis and the descending part (external), which can be seen and felt through the clitoral hood.
=== Benzenoid hydrocarbons === The benzenoid hydrocarbons have been defined as condensed polycyclic unsaturated fully-conjugated hydrocarbons whose molecules are essentially planar with all rings six-membered. Full conjugation means that all carbon atoms and carbon-carbon bonds must have the sp2 structure of benzene. This class is largely a subset of the alternant PAHs, but is considered to include unstable or hypothetical compounds like triangulene or heptacene. As of 2012, over 300 benzenoid hydrocarbons had been isolated and characterized.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.
The extension was introduced to slow enzymatic breakdown of the peptide in biological systems. Natural ACTH fragments are degraded rapidly by peptidases. Adding the tripeptide was intended to extend the window during which the molecule remains intact.
Most published work consists of animal experiments conducted in a small number of laboratories. Human data are limited in number and size. Whether the observed effects translate into reliable clinical benefit is still unresolved.
Semax is based on the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a seven-amino-acid segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The synthetic peptide retains the core sequence while removing regions associated with endocrine activity. This modification is intended to isolate effects on the nervous system.