ACTH(4-10) raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
Reviewed 2026-03-17. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Published research has focused mainly on neurological and cognitive endpoints in animal models, with proposed mechanisms involving brain-derived neurotrophic factor and related signalling pathways. A substantial share of the human data originates from a limited number of research groups, and independent replication in other countries remains sparse. Regulatory status reflects that distribution: the peptide is registered as a medicine in Russia and appears in some neighbouring markets, while elsewhere it is handled as a research chemical without approved therapeutic labelling. Questions about dose-response relationships, long-term effects, and comparability across studies are still open.
Lyophilised powder is normally kept at -20 °C in a desiccated container, with some suppliers recommending -80 °C for long-term archival storage. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are the most common cause of avoidable loss, so aliquoting before freezing reduces variability between working sessions. Dissolved peptide is far less stable than the dry solid and is usually prepared fresh or held briefly at 4 °C. Aqueous solutions support both hydrolysis of the backbone and oxidation of the N-terminal methionine, and these two routes dominate degradation under ordinary laboratory conditions.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Purity assay | RP-HPLC, UV 214 nm | Typical research grade 95 percent or higher |
| Mass confirmation | ESI-MS or MALDI-TOF | Compared with theoretical value |
| Main degradation route | Methionine oxidation | Sulfoxide formation in solution |
| Powder storage | -20 °C, desiccated | Amber vial, minimal headspace |
| Working solution | Sterile water or saline | Prepare fresh; avoid repeated thawing |
Material sold for laboratory use varies widely in stated purity and documentation. A certificate of analysis should list the analytical method, the column and detector used, and the observed purity value. Independent verification by an outside laboratory is the practical way to confirm identity when documentation is absent or internally inconsistent. Regulatory status differs by country, and a product legal in one jurisdiction may be unapproved or controlled in another.
Identity and purity of semax are established with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet detection, usually at 214 nanometres. Mass spectrometry, most often electrospray ionisation in positive mode, confirms the molecular mass and reveals truncated sequences. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion provide additional structural confirmation. Laboratories typically report purity as the percentage area of the main peak, a figure that does not capture isomeric or oxidised variants unless the method resolves them.
The peptide is prone to several degradation pathways. Oxidation of the methionine residue produces a sulfoxide that elutes close to the parent peak in many chromatographic systems. Hydrolysis of peptide bonds and deamidation of susceptible residues in related sequences also reduce purity over time. Lyophilised material kept dry at minus twenty degrees Celsius and shielded from light is the most stable form commonly described in laboratory practice.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Published studies are dominated by animal models of stroke, ischemia, and cognitive impairment, with a smaller number of human trials conducted in Russia. Many of the human reports are small, single-center, and published in Russian-language journals, which limits independent scrutiny. Outcome measures vary between studies and often rely on clinician-rated scales rather than objective biomarkers. Systematic reviews have noted the methodological weaknesses and called for larger, preregistered trials before firm conclusions can be drawn.
Claims about enhanced focus, memory, or mood in healthy people rest mostly on anecdotal reports and community discussion rather than on controlled data. It remains unclear whether any cognitive benefit observed in patients recovering from brain injury would extend to uninjured users. Dose-response relationships, long-term safety, and interactions with other drugs are not well characterized in the peer-reviewed literature. Questions about optimal route of administration and treatment duration likewise remain open.
Semax binds to melanocortin receptors and is thought to influence neuronal survival and plasticity rather than to act through the adrenal axis. Laboratory work has shown increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in treated tissue. Changes in c-Fos, a marker of neuronal activation, have also been reported. Because the peptide is rapidly degraded by peptidases, its effects are generally attributed to downstream signaling cascades rather than to sustained receptor occupancy.
=== Controversial associations === Beyond the well established link between benzodiazepines and psychomotor impairment resulting in motor vehicle accidents and falls leading to fracture; research in the 2000s and 2010s has raised the association between benzodiazepines (and Z-drugs) and other, as of yet unproven, adverse effects including dementia, cancer, infections, pancreatitis and respiratory disease exacerbations.
== January 11, 1982 (Monday) == The lowest temperature ever recorded in England was measured at Newport, Shropshire, where the thermometer reading was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F). Filming began on Return of the Jedi, the third film in the Star Wars franchise, and the conclusion of the original trilogy, with production starting at sound stages the Elstree Studios in England at Borehamwood, Hertfordshire. Born: Denis Kolodin, Russian footballer with 23 caps for the Russia national team; in Kamyshin, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union Blake Heron, American actor known for his starring role in the 1996 film Shiloh; in Rockville Centre, New York (d. from a drug overdose, 2017) Died: Jiro Horikoshi, Japanese aeronautical engineer who designed the Zero fighter. A. W. Haydon, 75, American inventor wand specialist in miniaturization, known for his invention of 82 devices and innovations, including the microswitch used in computers, as well other devices for use by the general public, by the U.S. military and by NASA Sir Kenneth Strong, 81, British Army Major General and advisor of the Normandy Landings on D-Day in 1944, as well as negotiating the surrender of both Italy and Japan Carl M. Voyles, 83, American Canadian football head coach for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, known for guiding the team to winning the 1953 Grey Cup Manya Surve, 37, Indian gangster, suspected in multiple murders and robberies, became the first of 622 criminals in Bombay to die in an "encounter killing" by police in the Maharashtra state.
The Singapore Tourism Board (STB) is the statutory board under the Ministry of Trade and Industry which is tasked with the promotion of the country's tourism industry. In August 2017 the STB and the Economic Development Board (EDB) unveiled a unified brand, Singapore – Passion Made Possible, to market Singapore internationally for tourism and business purposes. The Orchard Road district, which contains multi-storey shopping centres and hotels, can be considered the centre of shopping and tourism in Singapore. Other popular tourist attractions include the Singapore Zoo, River Wonders, Bird Paradise and Night Safari (located in Northern Singapore). The Singapore Zoo has embraced the open zoo concept whereby animals are kept in enclosures, separated from visitors by hidden dry or wet moats, instead of caging the animals, and the River Wonders has 300 species of animals, including numerous endangered species. Singapore promotes itself as a medical tourism hub, with about 200,000 foreigners seeking medical care there each year. Singapore medical services aim to serve at least one million foreign patients annually and generate US$3 billion in revenue. In 2025, Singapore saw a record number of nearly 245 million people crossing its borders. In the same year, Singapore turned away more than 45,000 foreigners – 38% higher than 2024. Luxury Hotels in Singapore include Raffles Hotel, Marina Bay Sands, Grand Hyatt Singapore, Capella Singapore, Conrad Singapore, Hilton Singapore Orchard, Shangri-La Singapore and The Ritz-Carlton Millenia Singapore.
== Treatment == Solar purpura does not require treatment and may resolve on its own within weeks or months. The lesions may also be permanent. Many people seek treatment for cosmetic purposes. There have been several studies on possible future treatments. A common treatment involves Retinoic acid and other vitamin A derivatives in an attempt to increase dermal thickness and prevent extravasation of red blood cells. The most common treatment is to avoid UV exposure, apply sunscreen, and wear long-sleeved clothing.
== Pharmaceutical use == As a synthetic drug, synephrine first appeared in Europe in the late 1920s, under the name of Sympatol. One of the earliest papers describing its pharmacological and toxicological properties was written by Lasch, who obtained it from the Viennese company Syngala. By 1930, Sympatol was referred to as a Boehringer product, while one of the first US Patents describing its preparation and use was assigned to Frederick Stearns & Co. in 1933. Despite the date of this patent, clinical and pharmacological research on synephrine obtained from Frederick Stearns & Co was being carried out in the US by 1930. Writing in 1931, Hartung reported that in 1930 the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American Medical Association had accepted synephrine for inclusion in its list of "New and Non-Official Remedies" as an agent for the treatment, by either oral or parenteral administration, "of attacks of hay fever, asthma, coughing, spasms of asthma and pertussis (whooping cough)." However, synephrine was dropped from the council's list in 1934, and its apparent re-advertising as a new drug by the Stearns company ten years later elicited a scathing comment from the Editors of the Journal of the American Medical Association. The third edition (1965) of Drill's Pharmacology in Medicine stated, with reservations, that synephrine was "advertised as an antihistaminic to be used in the treatment of the common cold...", under the trade name of "Synephrin Tartrate", and indicated that the dose was 100 mg, given intramuscularly, or subcutaneously.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Miscellaneous == John Parke Custis* (1777), stepson of George Washington Philip Hamilton (1800), eldest son of Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton David Augustus Clarkson (1810), landowner and grandson-in-law of Robert R. Livingston James Lenox (1818), bibliophile, founder of the Lenox Library, later incorporated into the New York Public Library; also founder of the Presbyterian Hospital John Lloyd Stephens (1822), explorer, archaeologist, special ambassador to Central America, and president of the Panama Railroad William R. Travers (1838), founder of the Travers Stakes William H. Herriman (1849), expatriate American art collector Cornelius Jeremiah Vanderbilt* (1850), son of Cornelius Vanderbilt Augustus Newbold Morris (1860), socialite and former president of The Metropolitan Club Winthrop Rutherfurd (1884), socialite known for his romance with Consuelo Vanderbilt and marriage to Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd, mistress of Franklin D. Roosevelt Gavin Arthur (1922), San Francisco astrologer and sexologist; grandson of U.S. President Chester A. Arthur Oswald Jacoby (1922), bridge player Fred Glazer (1958), librarian and director of the West Virginia Library Commission Arthur MacArthur IV (1960), son of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur Ashrita Furman (1976), holder of the most Guinness Book of World Records records Daniel Kottke (1977), college friend of Steve Jobs and 12th employee of Apple Inc. Sergey Kudrin (1981), chess grandmaster and three-time winner of the U.S.
== About == Sonic Healthcare Limited has a presence in Australia, New Zealand, United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium and Ireland. It is the largest medical laboratory provider in Australasia and Europe and the third largest in the US. The company is now part of the S&P/ASX 50, and is one of the largest medical companies listed on the ASX. Dr Colin Goldschmidt was the CEO and Managing Director of Sonic for the first 38 years. He was succeeded by Dr Jim Newcombe in 2025.
Some people find that opioids do not relieve all of their pain. Some people find that opioids side effects cause problems which outweigh the therapy's benefit. Some people build tolerance to opioids over time. This requires them to increase their drug dosage to maintain the benefit, and that in turn also increases the unwanted side effects. Long-term opioid use can cause opioid-induced hyperalgesia, which is a condition in which the patient has increased sensitivity to pain.
== Pharmacology == The pharmacodynamic profile of deupsilocin, including its interactions with serotonin receptors and its effects in animals, is similar to that of psilocin. As with psilocin, deupsilocin is a potent agonist of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor and produces psychedelic-like effects in animals. However, it was developed to have improved pharmacokinetic properties compared to psilocybin, including reduced variability in circulating levels, a faster onset of action, and a shorter duration. In humans, deupsilocin has been reported to have 2.2-fold higher peak levels and 3.5-fold higher area-under-the-curve (AUC) levels than psilocybin at equivalent doses. It is said to have a rapid onset of less than 15 minutes and a duration of 4 to 6 hours.
When oxygen binds to the iron complex, it causes the iron atom to move back toward the center of the plane of the porphyrin ring (see moving diagram). At the same time, the imidazole side-chain of the histidine residue interacting at the other pole of the iron is pulled toward the porphyrin ring. This interaction forces the plane of the ring sideways toward the outside of the tetramer, and also induces a strain in the protein helix containing the histidine as it moves nearer to the iron atom. This strain is transmitted to the remaining three monomers in the tetramer, where it induces a similar conformational change in the other heme sites such that binding of oxygen to these sites becomes easier. As oxygen binds to one monomer of hemoglobin, the tetramer's conformation shifts from the T (tense) state to the R (relaxed) state. This shift promotes the binding of oxygen to the remaining three monomers' heme groups, thus saturating the hemoglobin molecule with oxygen. In the tetrameric form of normal adult hemoglobin, the binding of oxygen is, thus, a cooperative process. The binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is increased by the oxygen saturation of the molecule, with the first molecules of oxygen bound influencing the shape of the binding sites for the next ones, in a way favorable for binding.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In March 2016, Taco Bell introduced private beta testing of an artificial intelligence bot on the messaging platform Slack designed to take orders of select menu items from local Taco Bell locations and have the orders delivered. Taco Bell planned to have a wider roll-out of this functionality in the coming months. Previously, Taco Bell's hot sauces were only available in packets at the chain itself. In February 2014, Taco Bell made its hot sauces available at grocery stores, sold in bottles. These would be followed by further grocery store products including chips in May 2018 and shredded cheese in 2019. In September 2016, Taco Bell opened a pop-up in New York City in the SoHo, Manhattan area called the Taco Bell VR Arcade. Taco Bell and VR fans could demo PlayStation VR, games, and food. In 2016, Taco Bell debuted a modular restaurant constructed from five reclaimed shipping containers at the South by Southwest (SXSW) festival in Austin, Texas. Following its successful reception, the structure was permanently relocated to South Gate, California, where it commenced operations as a standard franchise location in 2017. The restaurant features Taco Bell's full menu, with outdoor seating, a walk-up window, and a drive-thru, but no indoor seating unlike regular Taco Bell locations. Taco Bell announced plans in November 2017 to open 300 more urban and Cantina-style locations by 2022, with 50 to be located about New York City's five boroughs. In 2019, Taco Bell opened a pop-up hotel called "The Bell: A Taco Bell Hotel and Resort" for one weekend in August.
== Biological Role of cGP == The hepatic production of IGF-1 is controlled by the growth hormone (GH)-IGF-1 axis. The majority of circulating IGF-1 is not bioavailable because of its affinity and binding to IGF-binding protein (IGFBP), mainly IGFBP3. IGF-1 bioactivity is therefore, tightly regulated through reversible binding with IGFBP3. It is this binding-release process that determines the amount of bioavailable IGF-1 in circulation. IGF-1 that is not bound, is cleaved into an N-terminal tripeptide, glycine-proline-glutamate (GPE) and Des-N-IGF-1. and GPE metabolizes to result in cyclic glycine proline (cGP). Unbound IGF-1, cleaved at the N-terminal, can be metabolized through a series of downstream enzymatic reactions to cGP. The N-terminal is the binding site of IGF-1 which allows cGP to retain the same binding affinity to IGFBP-3 and thus, regulates the bioavailability of IGF-1 through competitive binding with IGFBP3. An increase in cGP, would increase competitive advantage and thus, increase the amount of circulating and therefore, bioavailable IGF-1. Research shows that cGP can normalize IGF-1 function under pathophysiological conditions of increased or diminished IGF-1 bioactivity. In vitro studies show that cGP promoted the activity of IGF-1 when insufficient and inhibited the activity of IGF-1 when in excess.
In certain areas of the world, like Ethiopia where this was studied extensively, as the cows needed to intake more nutrition to balance out their milk production, there was also an increased level of chemical fertilizers and heavy metal traces found in the milk due to increased exposure to agricultural chemicals. These chemicals can then easily be passed on to humans and lead to a contaminated milk supply. BST increases the longevity or the activity of the mammary cell leading to higher milk production and some other non-desirable side effects. Despite public controversy of the use of growth hormones in food-producing animals, the number of violations has decreased substantially in the past two decades. For comparison, the level of antibiotic-residue detected in bulk milk tank trucks in 2012 was one fifth the level that it was in 1996. As reported by the USDA, the US pattern for milk BTSCC declined steadily from 316,000 cells per mL of milk in 2001 to 224,000 cells/mL in 2010 and 206,000 cells/mL in 2011 (USDA, 2013). Mammary health in the animals themselves has improved over this time period as well as the overall health of the dairy herd in general. This is mostly attributed to better application methods of rBST and a better understanding of how the hormone affects the animals.
The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following the final engagement with Imperial forces which resulted in the deaths of the remaining forty samurai including Saigō, who, having suffered a fatal bullet wound in the abdomen, was honorably beheaded by his retainer. The national army's victory validated the current course of the modernization of the Japanese army as well as ended the era of the samurai.
== Further reading == Holmer, Marianne. Aquaculture in the Ecosystem. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2008. Molyneaux, Paul. Swimming in Circles: Aquaculture and the End of Wild Oceans. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2006. Stickney, Robert R. Aquaculture: An Introductory Text. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing, 2005. World Bank. Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2007.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Reversed-phase HPLC gives the main purity figure, most often with UV detection near 214 nanometres. Mass spectrometry then confirms the molecular mass. Together the two methods distinguish a correct sequence from a closely related impurity.
The main chemical risks are methionine oxidation and backbone hydrolysis in solution. Moisture and repeated temperature cycling accelerate both processes. Dry powder held cold and desiccated is considerably more stable than any reconstituted preparation.
It holds a medicine registration in Russia, where it has been used clinically for decades. In most other countries it is treated as a research chemical. That split explains the uneven distribution of clinical literature.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.